Determinants of E-Learning Effectiveness in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence

Abstract

E-learning adoption in developing countries continues to face significant challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, low digital literacy, and inconsistent institutional support, which limit its overall effectiveness. Existing studies remain fragmented, with limited integration of technological, individual, and institutional determinants, and insufficient methodological rigor, particularly the lack of longitudinal and theory-driven approaches. Moreover, prior review studies exhibit key gaps, including narrow focus on isolated factors, lack of standardized systematic review protocols, limited contextual diversity, and insufficient attention to emerging trends such as artificial intelligence and learner-centered approaches. This study aims to systematically review empirical literature from 2010 to 2026 to identify key determinants influencing e-learning effectiveness and address these gaps. Using a systematic literature review methodology, relevant studies were selected, screened, and analyzed based on predefined inclusion criteria. The findings reveal that multiple determinants significantly influence e-learning outcomes, though often examined in isolation. The study concludes that a holistic, integrated framework and more rigorous, transparent research designs are essential to enhance e-learning effectiveness and sustainability in developing countries.